Fig. 2
From: Urine and Serum Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Status and Early Vascular Ageing in Children and Adults
Pathways of oxidative stress and the biomarkers produced. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced from mitochondrial respiration, myeloperoxidases (MPO), NADPH oxidases (NOX), and xanthine oxidases (OX), and are removed by superoxide dismutases (SOD) and glutathione peroxidases (GPx). ROS oxidise protein, lipids and DNA resulting in protein carbonyls, oxidised low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL), F2-isoprostanes, malondialdehyde (MDA), and 8-Hydroxy-2’-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) being released into the blood and subsequently urine