Fig. 3
From: Urine and Serum Biomarkers of Cardiovascular Status and Early Vascular Ageing in Children and Adults
Pathways of inflammation and the biomarkers involved. Triggers such as oxidative stress, hypertension and endothelial dysfunction initiate inflammation resulting in the activation of immune cells and endothelial cells. These cells, particularly macrophages and monocytes, release the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tissue necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). IL-6 stimulates hepatocytes in the liver to produce C-reactive protein (CRP), which is then released into circulation. Positive feedback loops occur where TNF-alpha and IL-6 further stimulate their own production